词汇学译文-1 　　Before we attempt any detailed discussion, it is necessary to clarify some basic concepts concerning words and vocabulary. The term word is an elusive notion, which demands careful consideration at the outset. The relation between sound and meaning, between sound and form, and between words and vocabulary requires some discussion as well. In addition, we shall consider a few commonly recognised criteria for vocabulary classification and study each class of words to some extent in this chapter. 　1.1 What Is a Word What is a word? This question has occupied the attention of linguists for ages. Although numerous definitions have been suggested, none of them seem to be perfect. Scholars still do not agree on the definition of the word. When we talk about a word, we tend to think in visual terms.In this line a word can be defined as a meaningful group of letters printed or written horizontally across a piece of paper. As defined in terms of spoken language, a word is viewed as a sound or combination of sounds which are made voluntarily with human vocal equipment. According to semanticists, a word is a unit of meaning.Grammarians, however, insist that a word be a free form that can function in a sentence, etc. To sum up, the definition of a word comprises the following points: (1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. Therefore, we can say that 'a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function'. Words can be simple and complex, yet all must comply with these criteria. Man and fine are simple, but they each have sound, meaning and syntactic function, and each can be used alone in a sentence. Naturally they are words. There are words which are complex such as mis for tune and man age ment. Both are polysyllabic words and can function as 'subject', 'object' and 'predictive' in a sentence. Though misfortune can be further divided as misand fortune, the former cannot stand alone as a word.' Similarly, management can be broken down as manage and -ment, the latter cannot be used freely, either. Blackmail can be separated into black and mail, and both can work as independent units in a sentence, the meaning of each, however, is by no means the combination of the two. Black is a colour, opposite to "white', and mail denotes 'something sent by post', yet when they are put together, the combined form means 'compel, compulsion, to make payment or action in return for concealment of discreditable secrets etc.Hence blackmail is a different word (COD). 1.2 Sound and Meaning A word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world.Each of the world's cultures has come to agree that certain sounds will represent certain persons, things, places, properties, processes and activities outside the language system. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is 'no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself' (Lodwig and Barrett 1973). A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. It is only symbolic. The relationship between them is conventional because people of the same speech community have agreed to refer to the animal with this cluster of sounds. In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds. Woman, for example, becomes 'Frau' in German, 'femme' in French and 'fünu' in Chinese. On the other hand, the same sound [mi: t]is used to mean meet, meat, mete. Knight and night, though denoting entirely different things, yet have the same sound. 1.3 Sound and Form It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral form. In other words, the sound should be similar to the form. This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English. The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is. today. With the development of the language, more and more differences occur between the two. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart. During the last five hundred years, though the sounds of speech have changed considerably, there have been no corresponding changes of spelling. A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes. In the early days the spelling differences did not matter very much as people were not so used to seeing words in print, and the spelling was not fixed as it is today. As a result, no one was quite sure how some English words should be spelled.Sometimes, people deliberately changed spelling of words either to make a line even or for easier recognition. Before the printing press was brought to England, everything was written by hand. Those scribes, who made a living by writing for other people often worked in haste to meet the needs of the King, Church, and merchants.One problem was that several letters written with short vertical strokes such as i, u, v, m, w and n looked all alike. Consequently, their handwriting caused misunderstanding. To solve the problem in part, they changed the letter u to o when it came before m, n, orv. This is how sum, cum, wuman, wunder, munk came to be written as some, come, woman, wonder, monk. At some point, too, the scribes seem to have decided that no English word should end in u or v. Thus, in time, an e was added to such words as live, have, due, and true but not pronounced (Deighton 1979). In the late 1500, printing became well established. It helped to freeze the spelling of words. The standardization makes spelling sacred. Dictionaries did their share in stopping spelling changes.Meanwhile, sounds continued to change as usual, thus bringing more differences. Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. When English borrowed words from other languages, it borrowed spelling as well. The early borrowings were assimilated and the later ones, however, do not conform to the rules of English pronunciation and spelling, e.g. stimulus (L), dénouement (F), fiesta (Sp), eureka (Gr), and kimono (Jap). The written form of English is, therefore, an imperfect representation of the spoken form. From time to time in history, some British and American scholars have made efforts to reform the English spelling, but with little success. In spite of the differences, at least eighty percent of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns. And even those spellings that appear to be irregular may have more regularity and usefulness than we realize. In such words as hymn, condemn, bomb, for example, the last letter of each is silent. But when these words are extended into longer ones, the silent letters become audible: hymnal, condemnation and bombard. This is a general rule. 1.4 Vocabulary All the words in a language make up its vocabulary. The term *vocabulary' is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period, e. g. Old English vocabulary, Middle English vocabulary and Modern English vocabulary. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. English is one of the world's highly developed languages.Naturally the vocabulary is one of the largest and richest. The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over one million words. 1.5 Classification of Words The English vocabulary consists of words of all kinds. They can be classified by different criteria and for different purposes. Wordsmay fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin...

别人为什么不帮你？ 1.没有利益；2.没有影响力（威胁）；3.有敌意。

开放式重定向漏洞 　这种漏洞发生在当目标对象访问一个Web网站时，Web网站返回给浏览器一个不同域（domain）下的新的URL。开放式重定向利用对一个给定域的信任诱使目标对象访问一个恶意Web网站。网络钓鱼攻击也可以采用重定向以诱使用户相信他们正在向可信网站提交信息，而实际上，他们正在将信息发送到恶意网站。辅助其他攻击手段，开放式重定向也可以使黑客从他们的恶意网站上传播恶意软件或者窃取用户身份认证的令牌。开放式重定向一般发生在开发者误信了攻击者控制的输入而将网站重定向到另一个站点，这通常是通过URL参数、HTML刷新标签、DOM（Document Object Model，文档对象模型）中widow对象的location属性等实现的。很多Web网站都是通过在原始URL的参数中设置目标URL来有意实现用户访问的重定向的。应用程序通过使用这个参数来告诉浏览器向目标URL发送一个GET请求，例如，假定Google网站具有重定向到Gmail的功能，就可以通过访问如下URL实现： 　在这种情况下，当我们访问上面的URL时，Google网站会接收到一个HTTP的GET请求，然后依据redirect_to参数中指定的值来确定将你的浏览器重定向到哪里。在这之后，Google网站服务器会返回一个用于指示浏览器重定向用户的HTTP响应状态码。通常，这个状态码是302，但有时也可能是301、303、307或308。这些HTTP响应状态码告诉浏览器请求的网页找到了，但是需要浏览器发起一个GET请求到redirect_to参数值，https://www.gmail.com/这个参数值也在HTTP响应Location头中。Location头表示了向哪里重定向GET请求。现在，假设攻击者修改了原始的URL，如下所示：　如果Google没有验证redirect_to参数是否为其将访问者重定向到一个自有合法站点，攻击者就可以将该参数的值换成它们自己的URL。结果是，HTTP响应可能会引导浏览器向https://www..com/发起GET请求。一旦攻击者已经引导用户到他们的恶意网站，就可以发起进一步的攻击。当检查这类漏洞时，要重点关注具有特定名称的URL参数，例如url=、redirect=、next=等，因为这些都有可能会表示引导用户重定向去的URL。另一个需要注意的是，重定向参数不总是明显命名的，参数也可能随着网站的不同而不同，即使同一个网站内部不同的链接时也可能不同。在有些情况下，参数可能以单个字母的形式表示，例如r=或u=等。除了基于参数的攻击之外，HTML标签和JavaScript都可以重定向浏览器。HTML标签可以告知浏览器刷新网页，并向标签中的content属性定义的URL发起GET请求。下面是一个例子：　content属性定义了浏览器发起HTTP请求的两个步骤。首先，content属性定义了浏览器在向URL发起HTTP请求前需要等待的时间，在本例中，这个时间是0秒。其次，content属性确定了浏览器向其发起GET请求的网站中URL的参数，在本例中，这个参数是https://www.google.com。当攻击者具有控制标签的content属性的能力时，或者通过其他漏洞能够注入他们自己的标签时，就可以利用这种重定向行为。攻击者还可以通过使用JavaScript修改文档对象模型（DOM）中window对象的location属性来实现重定向用户。DOM是用于HTML和XML文档的API，它允许开发者修改网页的结构、风格和内容。因为location属性表示了请求将被重定向到哪里，浏览器将立刻解释JavaScript脚本并重定向到指定的URL。攻击者可以通过如下形式的JavaScript脚本修改window的location属性：通常，仅当攻击者能够执行JavaScript语句时才能设置window.location的属性值，而获得JavaScript执行权限一般是通过跨站脚本漏洞或者网站允许用户自定义重定向URL的漏洞来实现。

HTTP请求定义 　HTTP标准定义了以下请求方法：GET、HEAD、POST、PUT、DELETE、TRACE、CONNECT和OPTIONS（PATCH在HTTP RFC中也有提到，但并不常用）。浏览器只会使用HTML发送GET和POST请求。任何PUT、PATCH或DELETE请求都是JavaScript调用HTTP请求的结果。下面将简要介绍请求方法。1.请求方法　GET方法通过请求统一资源标识符（URI）标识信息。URI通常与统一资源定位器（URL）一起使用。严格地说，URL是一种定义资源的URI类型，它包括通过网络位置来定位该资源的方法。例如，http://www.google.com//file.txt和//file.txt都是有效的URI，但是只有http://www.google.com//file.txt是有效的URL，因为它标识了如何通过域名http://www.google.com定位资源。尽管有细微差别，但在引用任何资源标识符时都使用URL。虽然无法强制执行此要求，但GET请求不会更改数据，而只从服务器端检索数据并在HTTP消息体中返回内容。例如，在一个社交媒体网站上，GET请求只会返回你的配置文件名，却不会更新你的配置文件。这种行为对于跨站点请求伪造（CSRF）漏洞至关重要。访问任何URL或网站链接（除非由JavaScript调用），浏览器都会向目标服务器发送GET请求。这种特性对于开放重定向漏洞至关重要。　HEAD方法与GET方法相同，只是服务器不能在响应中返回消息体。 　POST方法由服务器决定调用接收服务器上的某些函数。换句话说，其通常会执行某种类型的后端操作，例如创建评论、注册用户、删除账户等。服务器响应POST所执行的操作可能会有所不同。服务器有时可能根本不会返回响应。例如，POST请求可能会导致处理请求时发生错误，并且不会在服务器上保存记录。　PUT方法调用一些引用远程网站或应用程序上已存在的记录的函数。例如，在更新已存在的账户、博客文章或其他内容时可能会使用它。同样，执行的操作可能会有所不同，并可能导致服务器根本不执行任何操作。　DELETE方法请求远程服务器删除用URI标识的远程资源。　TRACE方法是另一种不常见的方法，用于将请求消息返回给请求者。它允许请求者查看服务器接收到的内容，并使用这些信息来测试和收集诊断信息。　被保留的CONNECT方法用于代理服务器。代理服务器可将请求转发到其他服务器。此方法可以启动与所请求资源的双向通信。例如，CONNECT方法可以通过代理访问HTTPS的网站。　OPTIONS方法从服务器请求有关可用通信选项的信息。例如，通过调用OPTIONS可以确定服务器是否接受GET、POST、PUT、DELETE和OPTIONS调用。此方法不会指示服务器是否接受HEAD或TRACE调用。浏览器会自动为特定的内容类型（如application/json）发送这种类型的请求。这种方法称为“飞行前的OPTIONS调用”（preflightOPTIONS call），它起到了CSRF漏洞保护的作用。2.HTTP是无状态的　HTTP请求是无状态的，这意味着发送到服务器的每个请求都被视为一个全新的请求。服务器在接收请求时并不知道它以前与浏览器的通信。这对大多数网站来说都是一个问题，因为网站要记住你是谁。否则，每次发送HTTP请求时你都必须重新输入用户名和密码。这也意味着处理HTTP请求所需的所有数据都必须与客户端发送到服务器的每个请求一起重新加载。为了解释这个令人困惑的内容，思考一下这样一个例子：如果你我之间有一个无状态的对话，在讲每一句话之前，我必须从“我是小明，刚才讨论的是黑客攻击”开始。然后你必须重新载入我们讨论的关于黑客攻击的所有信息。为了避免每次发送HTTP请求时都必须重新发送用户名和密码，网站使用了cookie或基本身份验证

太笨了怎么办 正视自己，正视弱小，不把苦难当正确，坚持努力完善自己。 ::(滑稽)